## R Programming Tutorial

Data StructuresData structure can be technically defined as the specific form of organizing and storing the data. R programming supports five basic types of data structures namely vector, matrix, list, data frame, and factor. In this tutorial, we will talk about each of these components to understand the data structures better in R. In reality, R’s base data structure can be organized based on their dimensionality (1d, 2d, 3d, Nd) and if they are homogenous or not.HomogeneousHeterogeneous1-DAtomic VectorList2-DMatrixData FrameN-DArrayGiven an object, the best way to understand what data structures it’s composed of is to use str(). str() is short for structure and it gives a compact, human-readable description of any R data structure.VectorsOne of the basic data structures in R is the vector. Vectors have two different flavors: atomic vectors and lists. They have three common properties:Type – Describes what it is (typeof())Length – Tells how many elements it contains (length())Attributes – Gives us information about additional arbitrary metadata (attributes())They differ in the types of their elements: all elements of an atomic vector must be the same type, whereas the elements of a list can have different types.NB: is.vector() does not test if an object is a vector. Instead, it returns TRUE only if the object is a vector with no attributes apart from names. One can use is.atomic(x) or is.list(x) to test if an object is actually a vector or not.Atomic VectorsThere are four basic types of atomic vectors that we will talk about in detail: logical, integer, double (often called numeric), and character. There are two rare types which we will skip for now: complex and raw.Atomic vectors are usually created with c(), short for combine:Examples:var <- c(1.9, 2.0, 7.5) var #Result [1] 1.9 2.0 7.5 # With the L suffix, you get an integer rather than a double int_var <- c(2L, 8L, 100L) int_var #Result [1]   2 8 100 # Use TRUE and FALSE (or T and F) to create logical vectors logical_var <- c(TRUE, FALSE, T, F) logical_var #Result [1]  TRUE FALSE  TRUE FALSE chr_var <- c("example of","some strings") chr_var #Result [1]"example of" "some strings"Atomic vectors are always flat, even if you nest c()’s:c(1, c(2.96, c(3.75, 9))) #Result [1] 1.00 2.96 3.75 9.00Missing values are specified with NA, which is a logical vector of length 1. NA will always be coerced to the correct type if used inside c(), or you can create NAs of a specific type with NA_real_ (a double vector), NA_integer_ and NA_character_.Types and TestGiven a vector, you can determine its type with typeof(), or check if it’s a specific type with an “is” function: is.character(), is.double(), is.integer(), is.logical(), or, more generally, is.atomic().Examples:int_var <- c(1.05L, 8L, 10L) typeof(int_var) #Result [1] "double" is.integer(int_var) #Result [1] FALSE is.atomic(int_var) #Result [1] TRUE is.double(int_var) #Result [1] TRUE is.numeric(int_var) #Result [1] TRUECoercionAll elements of an atomic vector must be of the same type, so when you attempt to combine different types they will be coerced to the most flexible type. Types from least to most flexible are: logical, integer, double, and character.For example, combining a character and an integer yields a character:Examples:str(c("a", 1L, 0.95)) #Result chr [1:3] "a" "1" "0.95" #When a logical vector is coerced to an integer or double, #TRUE becomes 1 and FALSE becomes 0. This is very useful in conjunction #with sum() and mean() x <- c(FALSE, FALSE, TRUE) as.numeric(x) #Result [1] 0 0 1 # Total number of TRUEs sum(x) #Result [1] 1 mean(x) #Result [1] 0.3333333Coercion can often happen automatically. Most mathematical functions (+, log, abs, etc.) will coerce to a double or integer, and most logical operations (&, |, any, etc) will coerce to a logical. One will usually get a warning message if the coercion might lose information. If confusion is likely, explicitly coerce with as.character(), as.double(), as.integer(), or as.logical().Some key properties of Vectors:Vectors are homogeneousVectors can be indexed by positionsVectors can be indexed by multiple positionsVector elements can have names If vector elements have names then you can select them by nameFew Examples:> v <- c(10, 20, 30) > names(v) <- c("John", "Tracey", "Harry")  > print(v) ##John Tracey Harry 10 20 30>v[“Tracey”] ## Tracey 20ListsLists are quite different from atomic vectors as their elements can be of any type, including lists. One can construct lists by using list() instead of c():Examples:------Lists x <- list(1:5, "a", c(TRUE, FALSE, T, F), c(2.9, 5.3)) str(x)#Result List of 4 $: int [1:5] 1 2 3 4 5$ : chr "a" $: logi [1:4] TRUE FALSE TRUE FALSE$ : num [1:2] 2.9 5.3 x <- list(list(list(list()))) str(x) #Result List of 1 $:List of 1 ..$ :List of 1 .. ..$: list() is.recursive(x) #Result [1] TrueLists are sometimes expressed as recursive vectors, because a list may contain other lists as well. This is what makes them fundamentally different from atomic vectors.c() will combine several lists into one. If given a combination of atomic vectors and lists, c() will coerce the vectors to lists before combining them. Compare the results of a list() and c():Examples:x <- list(list(1:9), c(3, 4)) y <- c(list(1, 2), c(3, 4)) str(x) #Result List of 2$ :List of 1 ..$: int [1:9] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9$ : num [1:2] 3 4 str(y) #Result List of 4 $: num 1$ : num 2 $: num 3$ : num 4The typeof() a list is a list. You can test for a list with is.list() and coerce to a list with as.list(). You can turn a list into an atomic vector with unlist(). If the elements of a list have different types, unlist() uses the same coercion rules as c().Lists are basically used to create many of the more complicated data structures in R. For example, both data frames and linear models objects (as produced by lm()) are lists:Some key properties of Lists:Lists are heterogeneousLists can be indexed by positionsLists allow you to extract sub-lists (For example list[c(2,3)] is a sub-list of 1st that consists of the 2nd and 3rd elementsList elements can have names Mode and Physical TypeIn R, every object has a mode, which indicates how it is stored in memory: as a number, as a character string, as a list of pointers to other objects, as a function, and so forth: ObjectExampleModeNumber2.171NumericVectors of Numbersc(2.7.182, 3.1415)NumericCharacter String“John”CharVectors of Character Stringsc("John", "Tracey", "Harry")CharFactorfactor(c("NY", "CA", "IL"))NumericListlist("John", "Tracey", "Harry")listData Framedata.frame(x=1:3, y=c("NY", "CA", "IL"))ListFunctionprintFunctionThe mode() functions give us this informationExample:>mode(2.171)#[1] numericArray and Matrices(Please refer to the write up attached on Array and Matrices)FactorsA factor looks like a vector, but it has special properties. R keeps track of the unique values in a vector, and each unique value is called a level of the associated factor. R uses a compact representation for factors, which makes them efficient for storage in data frames. In other programming languages, a factor would be represented by a vector of enumerated values. In simple terms: “A factor is a vector that can contain only predefined values, and is used to store categorical data. Factors are built on top of integer vectors using two attributes: the class, “factor”, which makes them behave differently from regular integer vectors, and the levels, which defines the set of allowed values.”There are two key uses for factors: Categorical Variables: A factor can represent a categorical variable. Categorical variables are used in contingency tables, linear regression, analysis of variance (ANOVA), logistic regression, and many other areas.Groupings: This is a technique for labeling or tagging your data items according to their group.Examples:> x <- factor(c("a", "b", "c", "d")) >x ##Result ## [1] a b c d ## Levels: a b c d >class(x) #Result #[1] “factor” >levels(x) #Result ##[1] "a" "b" “c” “d” # You can't use values that are not in the levels x[2] <- "e" #Result## Warning in [<-.factor(*tmp*, 2, value = "e"): invalid factor level, NA ## generated # NB: you can't combine factors >c(factor("a"), factor("b")) ##Result ## [1] 1 1Factors are quite useful when you know the possible values a variable may take, even if you don’t see all values in a given dataset. Using a factor instead of a character vector makes it obvious when some groups contain no observations:gen_char <- c("m", "m", "f") gen_factor <- factor(gen_char, levels = c("m", "f")) table(gen_char) #Result ## gen_char ## f m  ## 1 2 table(gen_factor) ##Result #gen_factor # m f # 2 1Sometimes when a data frame is read directly from a file, a column you’d thought would produce a numeric vector instead produces a factor. This is caused by a non-numeric value in the column, often a missing value encoded in a special way . or -. To remedy the situation, coerce the vector from a factor to a character vector, and then from a character to a double vector. (Be sure to check for missing values after this process.) Of course, a much better plan is to discover what caused the problem in the first place and fix that; using the na.strings argument to read.csv() is often a good place to start.Data FrameA data frame is a very powerful and flexible data structure. Most serious R applications involve data frames. A data frame is the most common way of storing data in R, and if used systematically makes data analysis easier. Under the hood, a data frame is a list of equal-length vectors. This makes it a 2-dimensional structure, so it shares properties of both the matrix and the list. This means that a data frame has names(), colnames(), and rownames(), although names() and colnames() are the same thing. The length () of a data frame is the length of the underlying list and so is the same as ncol(); nrow() gives the number of rows.A data frame is a tabular (rectangular) data structure, which means that it has rows and columns. It is not implemented by a matrix, however. Rather, a data frame is a list: Few important points to remember when you are dealing with a data frame:A data frame can be built from a mixture of vectors, factors, and matrices. The columns of the matrices become columns in the data frame. The number of rows in each matrix must match the length of the vectors and factors. In other words, all elements of a data frame must have the same height. The vectors and factors must all have the same length; in other words, all columns must have the same height. The equal-height columns give a rectangular shape to the data frame. The columns must have namesBecause a data frame is both a list and a rectangular structure, R provides two different paradigms for accessing its contents: You can use list operators to extract columns from a data frame, such as df[i], df[[i]], or df$name. One can use matrix like notations like df[I,j], df[i,] or df[,j]Examples:#Create a data framedf <- data.frame(x = 1:5, y = c("a", "b", "c", “d”, ”e”)) str(df) #Result 'data.frame': 5 obs. of 2 variables:$ x: int  1 2 3 4 5  $y: Factor w/ 5 levels "a","b","c","d",..: 1 2 3 4 5One key point to remember while working with data frame is that data.frame() by default turns strings into factors. In that case , use stringsAsFactors = FALSE to suppress this behaviour:df <- data.frame( x = 1:5, y = c("a", "b", "c" ,”d” , “e”), stringsAsFactors = FALSE) str(df) #Result ##'data.frame': 5 obs. of 2 variables: #$ x: int  1 2 3 4 5  #$y: Factor w/ 5 levels "a","b","c","d",..: 1 2 3 4 5 >typeof(df) # [1] “list”Combining data frame>cbind(df, data.frame( z = 5:1)) #Result x y z 1 1 a 5 2 2 b 4 3 3 c 3 4 4 d 2 5 5 e 1 > rbind(df, data.frame(x = 10, y = "z")) #Result x y 1 1 a 2 2 b 3 3 c 4 4 d 5 5 e 6 10 zWhen combining column-wise, the number of rows must match, but row names are ignored. When combining row-wise, both the number and names of columns must match. Use plyr::rbind.fill() to combine data frames that don’t have the same columns.It’s a common mistake to try and create a data frame by cbind() - ing vectors together. This doesn’t work because cbind() will create a matrix unless one of the arguments is already a data frame. Instead use data.frame() directly:>correct_arg <- data.frame(a = 1:2, b = c("a", "b"), stringsAsFactors = FALSE) str(correct_arg) #Result 'data.frame': 2 obs. of 2 variables:$ a: int  1 2  $b: chr "a" "b"It’s also quite possible to have a column of a data frame that’s a matrix or array, as long as the number of rows matches the data frame:dfm <- data.frame(x = 1:5, y = I(matrix(1:25, nrow = 5))) str(dfm) #Result 'data.frame': 5 obs. of 2 variables:$ x: int  1 2 3 4 5  $y: 'AsIs' int [1:5, 1:5] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ... > dfm[5, "y"] #Result [,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5] [1,] 5 10 15 20 25We need to take extra care with the list and array columns: many functions that work with data frames assume that all columns are atomic vectors.Hope you enjoyed this tutorial which discusses in detail about various data structures in R and now the next step would be to play around various aspects of each of these.ReferenceR- Cookbook by Paul TeetorAdvanced R by Hadley WickhamLearning R by Richard Cotton ## R Programming Tutorial # Data Structures in R ## Data Structures Data structure can be technically defined as the specific form of organizing and storing the data. R programming supports five basic types of data structures namely vector, matrix, list, data frame, and factor. In this tutorial, we will talk about each of these components to understand the data structures better in R. In reality, R’s base data structure can be organized based on their dimensionality (1d, 2d, 3d, Nd) and if they are homogenous or not. HomogeneousHeterogeneous 1-DAtomic VectorList 2-DMatrixData Frame N-DArray Given an object, the best way to understand what data structures it’s composed of is to use str(). str() is short for structure and it gives a compact, human-readable description of any R data structure. ### Vectors One of the basic data structures in R is the vector. Vectors have two different flavors: atomic vectors and lists. They have three common properties: 1. Type – Describes what it is (typeof()) 2. Length – Tells how many elements it contains (length()) 3. Attributes – Gives us information about additional arbitrary metadata (attributes()) They differ in the types of their elements: all elements of an atomic vector must be the same type, whereas the elements of a list can have different types. NB: is.vector() does not test if an object is a vector. Instead, it returns TRUE only if the object is a vector with no attributes apart from names. One can use is.atomic(x) or is.list(x) to test if an object is actually a vector or not. ### Atomic Vectors There are four basic types of atomic vectors that we will talk about in detail: logical, integer, double (often called numeric), and character. There are two rare types which we will skip for now: complex and raw. Atomic vectors are usually created with c(), short for combine: Examples: var <- c(1.9, 2.0, 7.5) var #Result [1] 1.9 2.0 7.5 # With the L suffix, you get an integer rather than a double int_var <- c(2L, 8L, 100L) int_var #Result [1] 2 8 100 # Use TRUE and FALSE (or T and F) to create logical vectors logical_var <- c(TRUE, FALSE, T, F) logical_var #Result [1] TRUE FALSE TRUE FALSE chr_var <- c("example of","some strings") chr_var #Result [1]"example of" "some strings" Atomic vectors are always flat, even if you nest c()’s: c(1, c(2.96, c(3.75, 9))) #Result [1] 1.00 2.96 3.75 9.00 Missing values are specified with NA, which is a logical vector of length 1. NA will always be coerced to the correct type if used inside c(), or you can create NAs of a specific type with NA_real_ (a double vector), NA_integer_ and NA_character_. ### Types and Test Given a vector, you can determine its type with typeof(), or check if it’s a specific type with an “is” function: is.character(), is.double(), is.integer(), is.logical(), or, more generally, is.atomic(). Examples: int_var <- c(1.05L, 8L, 10L) typeof(int_var) #Result [1] "double" is.integer(int_var) #Result [1] FALSE is.atomic(int_var) #Result [1] TRUE is.double(int_var) #Result [1] TRUE is.numeric(int_var) #Result [1] TRUE ### Coercion All elements of an atomic vector must be of the same type, so when you attempt to combine different types they will be coerced to the most flexible type. Types from least to most flexible are: logical, integer, double, and character. For example, combining a character and an integer yields a character: Examples: str(c("a", 1L, 0.95)) #Result chr [1:3] "a" "1" "0.95" #When a logical vector is coerced to an integer or double, #TRUE becomes 1 and FALSE becomes 0. This is very useful in conjunction #with sum() and mean() x <- c(FALSE, FALSE, TRUE) as.numeric(x) #Result [1] 0 0 1 # Total number of TRUEs sum(x) #Result [1] 1 mean(x) #Result [1] 0.3333333 Coercion can often happen automatically. Most mathematical functions (+, log, abs, etc.) will coerce to a double or integer, and most logical operations (&, |, any, etc) will coerce to a logical. One will usually get a warning message if the coercion might lose information. If confusion is likely, explicitly coerce with as.character(), as.double(), as.integer(), or as.logical(). Some key properties of Vectors: 1. Vectors are homogeneous 2. Vectors can be indexed by positions 3. Vectors can be indexed by multiple positions 4. Vector elements can have names 5. If vector elements have names then you can select them by name Few Examples: > v <- c(10, 20, 30) > names(v) <- c("John", "Tracey", "Harry") > print(v) ##John Tracey Harry  10 20 30 >v[“Tracey”] ## Tracey 20 ### Lists Lists are quite different from atomic vectors as their elements can be of any type, including lists. One can construct lists by using list() instead of c(): Examples: ------Lists x <- list(1:5, "a", c(TRUE, FALSE, T, F), c(2.9, 5.3)) str(x) #Result List of 4$ : int [1:5] 1 2 3 4 5
$: chr "a"$ : logi [1:4] TRUE FALSE TRUE FALSE
$: num [1:2] 2.9 5.3 x <- list(list(list(list()))) str(x) #Result List of 1$ :List of 1
..$:List of 1 .. ..$ : list()
is.recursive(x)
#Result
[1] True

Lists are sometimes expressed as recursive vectors, because a list may contain other lists as well. This is what makes them fundamentally different from atomic vectors.

c() will combine several lists into one. If given a combination of atomic vectors and lists, c() will coerce the vectors to lists before combining them. Compare the results of a list() and c():

Examples:

x <- list(list(1:9), c(3, 4))
y <- c(list(1, 2), c(3, 4))
str(x)
#Result
List of 2
$:List of 1 ..$ : int [1:9] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
$: num [1:2] 3 4 str(y) #Result List of 4$ : num 1
$: num 2$ : num 3
$: num 4 The typeof() a list is a list. You can test for a list with is.list() and coerce to a list with as.list(). You can turn a list into an atomic vector with unlist(). If the elements of a list have different types, unlist() uses the same coercion rules as c(). Lists are basically used to create many of the more complicated data structures in R. For example, both data frames and linear models objects (as produced by lm()) are lists: Some key properties of Lists: 1. Lists are heterogeneous 2. Lists can be indexed by positions 3. Lists allow you to extract sub-lists (For example list[c(2,3)] is a sub-list of 1st that consists of the 2nd and 3rd elements 4. List elements can have names ### Mode and Physical Type In R, every object has a mode, which indicates how it is stored in memory: as a number, as a character string, as a list of pointers to other objects, as a function, and so forth: ObjectExampleMode Number2.171Numeric Vectors of Numbersc(2.7.182, 3.1415)Numeric Character String“John”Char Vectors of Character Stringsc("John", "Tracey", "Harry")Char Factorfactor(c("NY", "CA", "IL"))Numeric Listlist("John", "Tracey", "Harry")list Data Framedata.frame(x=1:3, y=c("NY", "CA", "IL"))List FunctionprintFunction The mode() functions give us this information Example: >mode(2.171) #[1] numeric ### Array and Matrices (Please refer to the write up attached on Array and Matrices) ### Factors A factor looks like a vector, but it has special properties. R keeps track of the unique values in a vector, and each unique value is called a level of the associated factor. R uses a compact representation for factors, which makes them efficient for storage in data frames. In other programming languages, a factor would be represented by a vector of enumerated values. In simple terms: “A factor is a vector that can contain only predefined values, and is used to store categorical data. Factors are built on top of integer vectors using two attributes: the class, “factor”, which makes them behave differently from regular integer vectors, and the levels, which defines the set of allowed values.” There are two key uses for factors: 1. Categorical Variables: A factor can represent a categorical variable. Categorical variables are used in contingency tables, linear regression, analysis of variance (ANOVA), logistic regression, and many other areas. 2. Groupings: This is a technique for labeling or tagging your data items according to their group. Examples: > x <- factor(c("a", "b", "c", "d")) >x ##Result ## [1] a b c d ## Levels: a b c d >class(x) #Result #[1] “factor” >levels(x) #Result ##[1] "a" "b" “c” “d” # You can't use values that are not in the levels x[2] <- "e" #Result ## Warning in [<-.factor(*tmp*, 2, value = "e"): invalid factor level, NA ## generated # NB: you can't combine factors >c(factor("a"), factor("b")) ##Result ## [1] 1 1 Factors are quite useful when you know the possible values a variable may take, even if you don’t see all values in a given dataset. Using a factor instead of a character vector makes it obvious when some groups contain no observations: gen_char <- c("m", "m", "f") gen_factor <- factor(gen_char, levels = c("m", "f")) table(gen_char) #Result ## gen_char ## f m ## 1 2 table(gen_factor) ##Result #gen_factor # m f # 2 1 Sometimes when a data frame is read directly from a file, a column you’d thought would produce a numeric vector instead produces a factor. This is caused by a non-numeric value in the column, often a missing value encoded in a special way . or -. To remedy the situation, coerce the vector from a factor to a character vector, and then from a character to a double vector. (Be sure to check for missing values after this process.) Of course, a much better plan is to discover what caused the problem in the first place and fix that; using the na.strings argument to read.csv() is often a good place to start. ### Data Frame A data frame is a very powerful and flexible data structure. Most serious R applications involve data frames. A data frame is the most common way of storing data in R, and if used systematically makes data analysis easier. Under the hood, a data frame is a list of equal-length vectors. This makes it a 2-dimensional structure, so it shares properties of both the matrix and the list. This means that a data frame has names(), colnames(), and rownames(), although names() and colnames() are the same thing. The length () of a data frame is the length of the underlying list and so is the same as ncol(); nrow() gives the number of rows. A data frame is a tabular (rectangular) data structure, which means that it has rows and columns. It is not implemented by a matrix, however. Rather, a data frame is a list: Few important points to remember when you are dealing with a data frame: 1. A data frame can be built from a mixture of vectors, factors, and matrices. The columns of the matrices become columns in the data frame. The number of rows in each matrix must match the length of the vectors and factors. In other words, all elements of a data frame must have the same height 2. The vectors and factors must all have the same length; in other words, all columns must have the same height. 3. The equal-height columns give a rectangular shape to the data frame. 4. The columns must have names Because a data frame is both a list and a rectangular structure, R provides two different paradigms for accessing its contents: • You can use list operators to extract columns from a data frame, such as df[i], df[[i]], or df$name
• One can use matrix like notations like df[I,j], df[i,] or df[,j]

Examples:

#Create a data frame

df <- data.frame(x = 1:5, y = c("a", "b", "c", “d”, ”e”))
str(df)
#Result
'data.frame': 5 obs. of  2 variables:
$x: int 1 2 3 4 5$ y: Factor w/ 5 levels "a","b","c","d",..: 1 2 3 4 5

One key point to remember while working with data frame is that data.frame() by default turns strings into factors. In that case , use stringsAsFactors = FALSE to suppress this behaviour:

df <- data.frame(
x = 1:5,
y = c("a", "b", "c" ,”d” , “e”),
stringsAsFactors = FALSE)
str(df)
#Result
##'data.frame': 5 obs. of  2 variables:
#$x: int 1 2 3 4 5 #$ y: Factor w/ 5 levels "a","b","c","d",..: 1 2 3 4 5
>typeof(df)
# [1] “list”

#### Combining data frame

>cbind(df, data.frame( z = 5:1))
#Result
x y z
1 1 a 5
2 2 b 4
3 3 c 3
4 4 d 2
5 5 e 1
> rbind(df, data.frame(x = 10, y = "z"))
#Result
x y
1  1 a
2  2 b
3  3 c
4  4 d
5  5 e
6 10 z

When combining column-wise, the number of rows must match, but row names are ignored. When combining row-wise, both the number and names of columns must match. Use plyr::rbind.fill() to combine data frames that don’t have the same columns.

It’s a common mistake to try and create a data frame by cbind() - ing vectors together. This doesn’t work because cbind() will create a matrix unless one of the arguments is already a data frame. Instead use data.frame() directly:

>correct_arg <- data.frame(a = 1:2, b = c("a", "b"),
stringsAsFactors = FALSE)
str(correct_arg)
#Result
'data.frame': 2 obs. of  2 variables:
$a: int 1 2$ b: chr  "a" "b"

It’s also quite possible to have a column of a data frame that’s a matrix or array, as long as the number of rows matches the data frame:

dfm <- data.frame(x = 1:5, y = I(matrix(1:25, nrow = 5)))
str(dfm)
#Result
'data.frame': 5 obs. of  2 variables:
$x: int 1 2 3 4 5$ y: 'AsIs' int [1:5, 1:5] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ...
> dfm[5, "y"]
#Result
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5]
[1,]    5 10 15   20 25

We need to take extra care with the list and array columns: many functions that work with data frames assume that all columns are atomic vectors.

Hope you enjoyed this tutorial which discusses in detail about various data structures in R and now the next step would be to play around various aspects of each of these.

### Reference

1. R- Cookbook by Paul Teetor
3. Learning R by Richard Cotton

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